Which of the Following Is Not One of the Ways Nonverbal Communication Can Function?

4.iv Nonverbal Communication in Context

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the part of nonverbal communication in relational contexts.
2. Hash out the part of nonverbal advice in professional person contexts.
3. Provide examples of cultural differences in nonverbal communication.
4. Provide examples of gender differences in nonverbal communication.

Nonverbal communication receives less attending than verbal communication as a function of our everyday lives. Learning more nigh nonverbal communication and becoming more aware of our own and others' utilise of nonverbal cues tin help united states be better relational partners and ameliorate professionals. In addition, learning almost cultural differences in nonverbal communication is important for people traveling abroad but too due to our increasingly multinational business world and the expanding diversity and increased frequency of intercultural communication inside our own borders.

Nonverbal Communication in Relational Contexts

A central, if not primary, function of nonverbal advice is the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Farther, people who are skilled at encoding nonverbal messages have various interpersonal advantages, including being more popular, having larger social networks consisting of both acquaintances and close friends, and being less likely to exist lonely or socially anxious (Riggio, 1992).

Nonverbal advice increases our expressivity, and people generally observe bonny and want to pay more attending to things that are expressive. This increases our chances of initiating interpersonal relationships. Relationships and so form equally a effect of some initial exchanges of verbal and nonverbal information through mutual self-disclosure. As the depth of self-disclosure increases, messages become more than meaningful if they are accompanied by congruent nonverbal cues. Impressions formed at this stage of interaction help determine whether or not a relationship will progress. As relationships progress from basic information exchange and the establishment of early interpersonal bonds to more substantial emotional connections, nonverbal communication plays a more central office. As nosotros've learned, nonverbal advice conveys much emotional meaning, so the power to finer encode and decode appropriate nonverbal messages sent through facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, and bear on leads to high-quality interactions that are rewarding for the communicators involved.

Nonverbal communication helps maintain relationships once they have moved across the initial stages past helping us communicate emotions and seek and provide social and emotional support. In terms of communicating emotions, competent communicators know when it is appropriate to express emotions and when more than cocky-regulation is needed. They also know how to adjust their emotional expressions to fit diverse contexts and individuals, which is useful in preventing emotional imbalances inside a human relationship. Emotional imbalances occur when one relational partner expresses too much emotion in a fashion that becomes a brunt for the other person. Ideally, each person in a relationship is able to limited his or her emotions in a way that isn't too taxing for the other person. Occasionally, one relational partner may be going through an extended menstruum of emotional distress, which tin go very difficult for other people in his or her life. Since people with nonverbal communication competence are already more likely to take larger social support networks, information technology is likely that they will be able to spread around their emotional communication, specifically related to negative emotions, in ways that practice non burden others. Unfortunately, since people with less nonverbal skill are likely to take smaller social networks, they may cease upwards targeting ane or two people for their emotional communication, which could lead the other people to withdraw from the relationship.

Nonverbal communication allows the states to give and request emotional support, which is a key office of relational communication.

Kevin Dooley – Hug – CC BY two.0.

Expressing the demand for back up is also an of import function of relational maintenance. People who lack nonverbal encoding skills may send unclear or subtle cues requesting support that are not picked upward on by others, which can lead to increased feelings of loneliness. Skilled encoders of nonverbal messages, on the other hand, are able to appropriately communicate the need for support in recognizable means. As relationships progress in terms of closeness and intimacy, nonverbal signals become a shorthand form of communicating, as information can be conveyed with a particular look, gesture, tone of vox, or posture. Family members, romantic couples, shut friends, and close colleagues can bail over their familiarity with each other's nonverbal behaviors, which creates a shared relational reality that is unique to the relationship.

Nonverbal Communication in Professional person Contexts

Surveys of current professionals and managers accept institute that most report that nonverbal skills are important to their jobs (DePaulo, 1992). Although of import, there is rarely any training or pedagogy related to nonverbal communication, and a consequent issue that has been reported by employees has been difficulty with mixed messages coming from managers. Interpreting contradictory verbal and nonverbal messages is challenging in any context and can take negative effects on task satisfaction and productivity. Every bit a supervisor who gives positive and negative feedback regularly and/or in periodic performance evaluations, it is important to be able to match nonverbal signals with the content of the message. For example, advisable nonverbal cues can convey the seriousness of a customer or coworker complaint, help ease the delivery of effective criticism, or reinforce positive feedback. Professionals also need to be aware of how context, status, and power intersect with specific channels of nonverbal communication. For example, even casual touching of supervisees, mentees, or employees may be considered cavalier or inappropriate in certain situations. A well-deserved pat on the dorsum is different from an unnecessary hand on the shoulder to say hello at the first of a business meeting.

In professional contexts, managers and mentors with nonverbal decoding skills can showroom sensitivity to others' nonverbal beliefs and better relate to employees and mentees. In general, interpreting emotions from nonverbal cues can have interpersonal and professional benefits. One study found that salespeople who were skilled at recognizing emotions through nonverbal cues sold more than products and earned college salaries (Byron, Terranova, & Nowicki Jr., 2007). Aside from bringing financial rewards, nonverbal communication likewise helps create supportive climates. Bosses, supervisors, and service providers like therapists tin can assistance create rapport and a positive climate by consciously mirroring the nonverbal advice of their employees or clients. In addition, mirroring the nonverbal communication of others during a chore interview, during a sales pitch, or during a performance evaluation can help put the other person at ease and establish rapport. Much of the mirroring we do is natural, so trying to overcompensate may actually be detrimental, simply engaging in self-monitoring and making small adjustments could be beneficial (DePaulo, 1992).

Yous can besides use nonverbal communication to bring positive attention to yourself. Being able to nonverbally encode plough-taking cues can allow people to contribute to conversations at relevant times, and getting an idea or a slice of information or feedback in at the right time tin can assistance bring attention to your professional person competence. Existence able to encode an appropriate amount of professionalism and enthusiasm during a job interview tin as well aid in desired impression formation since people make judgments most others' personalities based on their nonverbal cues. A person who comes across as also enthusiastic may be seen equally pushy or fake, and a person who comes across every bit also relaxed may exist seen as unprofessional and unmotivated.

Nonverbal Communication and Culture

As with other aspects of communication, norms for nonverbal communication vary from country to country and too amid cultures within a detail country. We've already learned that some nonverbal advice behaviors appear to be somewhat innate because they are universally recognized. Two such universal signals are the "eyebrow flash" of recognition when we see someone we know and the open hand and the palm up gesture that signals a person would like something or needs assist (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Smiling is also a universal nonverbal beliefs, but the triggers that pb a person to grin vary from culture to civilisation. The expansion of media, especially from the The states and other Western countries effectually the world, is leading to more nonverbal similarities amidst cultures, merely the biggest cultural differences in nonverbal communication occur within the categories of middle contact, touch, and personal space (Pease & Pease, 2004). Next, we will overview some interesting and instructive differences within several channels of nonverbal communication that we take discussed so far. As you read, remember that these are not absolute, in that nonverbal advice similar other forms of communication is influenced by context and varies amidst individuals within a detail cultural group as well.

Kinesics

Cultural variations in the manner we gesture, use head movements, and use heart contact fall under the nonverbal category of kinesics.

Gestures

Recall that emblems are gestures that correspond to a word and an agreed-on meaning. When we utilise our fingers to count, we are using emblematic gestures, but even our way of counting varies among cultures (Pease & Pease, 2004). I could fairly accurately separate British people and The states Americans from French, Greek, and German people based on a simple and mutual gesture. Allow'due south try this exercise: Showtime, brandish with your paw the number five. Second, keeping the 5 displayed, change it to a two. If you are from the United states of america or Britain you are probably holding upward your alphabetize finder and your eye finger. If you lot are from another European country you are probably belongings up your thumb and index finger. While Americans and Brits start counting on their index finger and end with five on their thumb, other Europeans start counting on their thumb and end with five on their pinky finger.

This mutual gesture for "five" or as a signal to get someone'south attention is chosen a moutza in Greece and is an insult gesture that ways y'all want to rub excrement in someone'southward confront. Meet example in Note iv.38 "Video Clip 4.1".

How you lot utilise your hands can also get you into problem if you're unaware of cultural differences (Pease & Pease, 2004). For example, the "thumbs up" gesture, as we just learned, can hateful "i" in mainland Europe, but it besides means "up yours" in Hellenic republic (when thrust forward) and is recognized as a indicate for hitchhiking or "good," "skillful job / manner to go," or "OK" in many other cultures. Two hands up with the palms out tin can signal "ten" in many Western countries and is recognized as a signal for "I'm telling the truth" or "I surrender" in many cultures. The same gesture, nevertheless, ways "upwardly yours twice" in Hellenic republic. So using that familiar gesture to say you surrender might actually end up escalating rather than ending a conflict if used in Greece.

You tin can take a cross-cultural awareness quiz to learn some more interesting cultural variations in gestures at the following link: http://www.kwintessential.co.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland/resource/quiz/gestures.php.

Head Movements

Bowing is a nonverbal greeting ritual that is more common in Asian cultures than Western cultures, merely the head nod, which is a mutual course of acknowledgement in many cultures, is actually an abbreviated bow. Nihon is considered a noncontact civilisation, which refers to cultural groups in which people stand farther autonomously while talking, make less centre contact, and touch less during regular interactions. Considering of this, bowing is the preferred nonverbal greeting over handshaking. Bows vary based on status, with higher condition people bowing the least. For case, in order to indicate the status of another person, a Japanese businessperson may bow deeply. An interesting ritual associated with the bow is the commutation of business cards when greeting someone in Japan. This exchange allows each person to view the other'south occupation and championship, which provides useful information about the other's status and determines who should bow more than. Since bowing gives each person a good view of the other person'southward shoes, information technology is very important to have clean shoes that are in good status, since they play an important part of initial impression formation.

Eye Contact

In some cultures, avoiding eye contact is considered a sign of respect. Such heart contact disfavor, however, could be seen as a sign that the other person is being deceptive, is bored, or is being rude. Some Native American nations teach that people should avoid middle contact with elders, teachers, and other people with status. This can create issues in classrooms when teachers are unaware of this norm and may consider a Native American educatee's lack of eye contact equally a sign of insubordination or lack of appointment, which could pb to simulated impressions that the student is a troublemaker or less intelligent.

Haptics

As nosotros've learned, touch behaviors are of import during initial interactions, and cultural differences in these nonverbal practices can pb to miscommunication and misunderstanding. Shaking hands as a typical touch greeting, for case, varies among cultures (Pease & Pease, 2004). It is customary for British, Australian, High german, and United states of america American colleagues to shake easily when seeing each other for the offset time and then to shake again when departing company. In the Us, the colleagues exercise not unremarkably milkshake hands again if they see each other over again later on in the solar day, but European colleagues may shake easily with each other several times a mean solar day. Once a sure level of familiarity and closeness is reached, US American colleagues volition probable not even shake hands daily unless engaging in some more formal interaction, but many European colleagues will continue to milk shake each time they meet each other. Some French businesspeople take been known to spend up to thirty minutes a twenty-four hour period shaking hands. The squeezes and up-and-downward shakes used during handshakes are often called "pumps," and the number of pumps used in a handshake also varies among cultures. Although the Germans and French shake hands more than often throughout the day, they typically only give i or two pumps and then concur the milkshake for a couple seconds before letting get. Brits tend to give three to 5 pumps, and US Americans tend to requite five to 7 pumps. This tin can be humorous to spotter at a multinational concern result, simply it besides affects the initial impressions people brand of each other. A Us American may think that a German is being unfriendly or distant because of his or her single mitt pump, while a High german may think that a United states American is overdoing it with seven.

Contact cultures are cultural groups in which people stand closer together, appoint in more than eye contact, touch more often, and speak more loudly. Italians are especially known for their vibrant nonverbal communication in terms of gestures, volume, eye contact, and touching, which not surprisingly places them in the contact civilisation category. Italians apply hand motions and touching to regulate the flow of conversations, and when non-Italians don't know how to mirror an Italian's nonverbals they may not get to contribute much to the conversation, which likely feeds into the stereotype of Italians every bit domineering in conversations or overexpressive. For example, Italians speak with their hands raised equally a way to signal that they are holding the flooring for their conversational turn. If their conversational partner starts to heighten his or her hands, the Italian might gently touch the other person and keep on talking. Conversational partners often translate this as a sign of affection or of the Italian'southward passion for what he or she is saying. In fact, it is a impact intended to keep the partner from raising his or her hands, which would point that the Italian's conversational turn is over and the other person now has the floor. It has been suggested that in order to get a conversational plough, you must physically grab their hands in midair and pull them down. While this would seem very invasive and rude to northern Europeans and United states Americans, information technology is a nonverbal norm in Italian culture and may be the simply way to go to contribute to a conversation (Pease & Pease, 2004).

Vocalics

The volume at which we speak is influenced past specific contexts and is more more often than not influenced past our culture. In European countries like French republic, England, Sweden, and Germany, information technology is not uncommon to find restaurants that have small tables very shut together. In many cases, ii people dining together may be sitting at a table that is really touching the table of another pair of diners. Well-nigh Us Americans would consider this a violation of personal space, and Europeans oft perceive US Americans to exist rude in such contexts because they do non control the volume of their conversations more. Since personal space is unremarkably more plentiful in the United States, Americans are used to speaking at a level that is considered loud to many cultures that are used to less personal space. I have personally experienced both sides of this while traveling abroad. One time, my friends and I were asked to leave a restaurant in Sweden because another table complained that nosotros were being loud. Another time, at a eatery in Argentina, I was disturbed, as were the others dining around me, past a "loud" table of Americans seated on the other side of the dining surface area. In this case, even though we were likewise Americans, we were bothered by the lack of cultural awareness being exhibited by the other Americans at the eating place. These examples show how proxemics and vocalics tin combine to make for troubling, but hopefully informative, nonverbal intercultural encounters.

Proxemics

Cultural norms for personal space vary much more than some other nonverbal communication channels such as facial expressions, which have more universal similarity and recognizability. Nosotros've already learned that contact and noncontact cultures differ in their preferences for touch and interpersonal distance. Countries in South America and southern Europe exhibit characteristics of contact cultures, while countries in northern Europe and Southeast Asia showroom noncontact cultural characteristics. Because of the unlike comfort levels with personal space, a Guatemalan and a Canadian might come away with differing impressions of each other because of proxemic differences. The Guatemalan may feel the Canadian is standoffish, and the Canadian may feel the Guatemalan is pushy or aggressive.

Chronemics

The U.s. and many northern and western European countries take a monochronic orientation to time, meaning fourth dimension is seen as a commodity that can be budgeted, saved, spent, and wasted. Events are to be scheduled in accelerate and take set beginning and ending times. Countries like Espana and Mexico have a polychronic orientation to fourth dimension. Appointments may exist scheduled at overlapping times, making an "orderly" schedule impossible. People may also miss appointments or deadlines without offering an apology, which would exist considered very rude by a person with a monochronic orientation to fourth dimension. People from cultures with a monochronic orientation to fourth dimension are frustrated when people from polychromic cultures abolish appointments or close businesses for family obligations. Conversely, people from polychromic cultures feel that US Americans, for example, follow their schedules at the expense of personal relationships (Martin & Nakayama, 2010).

Nonverbal Communication and Gender

Gender and communication scholar Kathryn Dindia contests the notion that men and women are from different planets and instead uses another analogy. She says men are from South Dakota and women are from N Dakota. Although united states border each other and are like in many means, state pride and in-group identifications lead the people of Due south Dakota to perceive themselves to be unlike from the people of North Dakota and vice versa. But if we expand our perspective and accept the position of someone from California or Illinois, Due north Dakotans and S Dakotans are pretty much akin (Andersen, 1999). This comparison is intended to indicate out that in our daily lives nosotros practice experience men and women to exist fairly dissimilar, just when we look at the differences between men and women compared to the differences between humans and other creatures, men and women are much more similar than different. For example, in terms of nonverbal communication, men and women all over the globe brand similar facial expressions and can recognize those facial expressions in 1 another. Nosotros use like heart contact patterns, gestures, and, within cultural groups, take similar notions of the use of fourth dimension and space. As I will reiterate throughout this volume, it's important to understand how gender influences communication, but it's too important to remember that in terms of advice, men and women are about 99 pct similar and 1 percent different.

Kinesics

Although men and women are generally like in terms of nonverbal communication, we can gain a improve understanding of the office that gender plays in influencing our social realities past exploring some of the channel-specific differences (Andersen, 1999). Within the category of kinesics, nosotros will discuss some gender differences in how men and women use gestures, posture, eye contact, and facial expressions.

Gestures

• Women use more than gestures in regular conversation than practise men, but men tend to apply larger gestures than women when they do use them.
• Men are, however, more probable to use physical adaptors similar restless human foot and hand movements, probably considering girls are socialized to avoid such movements because they are not "ladylike."

Posture

• Men are more likely to lean in during an interaction than are women.
• Women are more probable to have a face-to-face body orientation while interacting than are men.

Women'southward tendency to use a face-to-face body orientation influences the general conclusion that women are ameliorate at sending and receiving nonverbal messages than men. Women'south more straight visual engagement during interactions allows them to accept in more nonverbal cues, which allows them to better reflect on and more accurately learn from experience what particular nonverbal cues mean in what contexts.

Eye Contact

• In general, women brand more than eye contact than men. Every bit we learned, women apply face-to-face body orientations in conversations more often than men, which probable facilitates more sustained eye contact.
• Overall, women tend to exercise more looking and get looked at more than men.

Facial Expressions

• Women reveal emotion through facial expressions more frequently and more than accurately than men.
• Men are more likely than women to exhibit angry facial expressions.

Men are often socialized to believe information technology is of import to hide their emotions. This is especially evident in the case of smiling, with women smiling more than men. This too contributes to the stereotype of the more emotionally aware and nurturing woman, since people tend to like and view as warmer others who show positive emotion. Gender socialization plays a office in facial displays every bit girls are typically rewarded for emotional displays, especially positive ones, and boys are rewarded when they conceal emotions—for example, when they are told to "suck information technology upwards," "take information technology like a man," or "show sportsmanship" by non gloating or celebrating openly.

Haptics

• Although it is often causeless that men bear upon women more than women touch men, this hasn't been a consequent inquiry finding. In fact, differences in touch in cantankerous-gender interactions are very small.
• Women do engage in more than touching when interacting with same-gender conversational partners than do men.
• In full general, men tend to read more sexual intent into bear on than do women, who frequently underinterpret sexual intent (Andersen, 1999).

There is a touch taboo for men in the Us. In fact, research supports the claim that men's aversion to same-gender touching is college in the Usa than in other cultures, which shows that this taboo is culturally relative. For example, seeing two adult men holding hands in public in Saudi Arabia would signal that the men are close friends and equals, only it wouldn't point that they are sexually attracted to each other (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). The impact taboo likewise extends to cross-gender interactions in sure contexts. Information technology'due south of import to be aware of the potential interpretations of touch, peculiarly every bit they relate to sexual and aggressive interpretations.

Vocalics

• Women are socialized to use more vocal diversity, which adds to the stereotype that women are more than expressive than men.
• In terms of pitch, women tend more than men to end their sentences with an upward inflection of pitch, which implies a lack of certainty, even when there isn't.

A biological difference between men and women involves vocal pitch, with men's voices being lower pitched and women's existence college. Varying degrees of importance and social significant are and then placed on these biological differences, which pb some men and women to consciously or unconsciously exaggerate the difference. Men may speak in a lower register than they would naturally and women may speak in more soft, breathy tones to accentuate the pitch differences. These means of speaking often first as a conscious choice after boyhood to better fit into socially and culturally proscribed gender performances, but they can become so engrained that people spend the residuum of their lives speaking in a voice that is a modified version of their natural tone.

Proxemics

• Men are implicitly socialized to take up as much space as possible, and women are explicitly socialized to take upward less space.
• In terms of interpersonal distance, research shows that women interact in closer proximity to one some other than do men.
• Men exercise non respond likewise as women in situations involving crowding. High-density environments evoke more negative feelings from men, which can even lead to physical violence in very crowded settings.

Men are generally larger than women, which is a biological deviation that gains social and cultural meaning when certain behaviors and norms are associated with it. For example, women are told to sit down in a "ladylike" way, which usually means to cross and/or close their legs and continue their limbs close to their body. Men, on the other hand, sprawl out in casual, professional person, and formal situations without their utilise of infinite being reprimanded or even noticed in many cases.

If yous'll recall our earlier discussion of personal space, nosotros identified two subzones within the personal zone that extends from ane.v to 4 feet from our trunk. Men seem to be more than comfortable with casual and social interactions that are in the outer subzone, which is ii.5 to 4 anxiety abroad, pregnant men prefer to interact at an arm's length from some other person. This also plays into the stereotypes of women as more than intimate and nurturing and men as more distant and less intimate.

Men's displays of intimacy are oft different from women's due to gender socialization that encourages females' expressions of intimacy and discourages males'.

Juan Jose Richards Echeverria – Bros. – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Cocky-Presentation

• Men and women present themselves differently, with women, in general, accentuating their physical attractiveness more and men accentuating signs of their status and wealth more than.
• Men and women may appoint in self-presentation that exaggerates existing biological differences between male and female bodies.

Near people want to nowadays themselves in ways that accentuate their attractiveness, at to the lowest degree in some situations where impression management is of import to fulfill sure instrumental, relational, or identity needs. Gender socialization over many years has influenced how we present ourselves in terms of attractiveness. Enquiry shows that women's concrete attractiveness is more than important to men than men's physical attractiveness is to women. Women exercise have physical attractiveness into account, simply a man'due south social status and wealth has been shown to exist more important.

Men and women also exaggerate biological and socially based sex and gender differences on their own. In terms of biological science, men and women's bodies are generally different, which contributes to the nonverbal surface area related to personal appearance. Many men and women choose clothing that accentuates these bodily differences. For case, women may accentuate their curves with specific vesture choices and men may accentuate their size—for example, past wearing a suit with shoulder padding to enhance the appearance of broad shoulders. These choices vary in terms of the level of consciousness at which they are made. Men are also hairier than women, and although it isn't ever the case and training varies by culture, many women shave their legs and remove trunk hair while men may grow beards or go to cracking lengths to reverse baldness to accentuate these differences. Of course, the more recent trend of "manscaping" at present has some men trimming or removing torso pilus from their chests, arms, and/or legs.

Central Takeaways

• A central function of nonverbal communication is the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Nonverbal communication helps initiate relationships through impression management and cocky-disclosure and and so helps maintain relationships every bit information technology aids in emotional expressions that request and give emotional support.
• Professionals indicate that nonverbal communication is an of import part of their jobs. Organizational leaders can use nonverbal decoding skills to tell when employees are nether stress and in need of support and can then utilize encoding skills to showroom nonverbal sensitivity. Nonverbal signals can aid in impression management in professional settings, such as in encoding an appropriate amount of enthusiasm and professionalism.
• Although some of our nonverbal signals announced to exist more than innate and culturally universal, many others vary considerably among cultures, especially in terms of the utilize of infinite (proxemics), center contact (oculesics), and bear on (haptics). Rather than learning a listing of rules for cultural variations in nonverbal cues, it is better to develop more full general knowledge near how nonverbal norms vary based on cultural values and to view this cognition every bit tools that can be adjusted for use in many different cultural contexts.
• In terms of gender, well-nigh of the nonverbal differences between men and women are exaggerations of biological differences onto which we have imposed sure meanings and values. Men and women'southward nonverbal communication, as with other aspects of communication, is much more than similar than different. Research has consistently found, nonetheless, that women gesture, make eye contact, bear on and stand up close to aforementioned-gender conversational partners, and use positive facial expressions more than men.

Exercises

1. Identify some nonverbal behaviors that would signal a positive interaction on a get-go date and on a job interview. Then identify some nonverbal behaviors that would signal a negative interaction in each of those contexts.
2. Talk over an experience where you have had some kind of miscommunication or misunderstanding considering of cultural or gender differences in encoding and decoding nonverbal messages. What did you learn in this chapter that could help you in similar futurity interactions?

References

Byron, K., Sophia Terranova, and Stephen Nowicki Jr., "Nonverbal Emotion Recognition and Salespersons: Linking Ability to Perceived and Actual Success," Journal of Applied Social Psychology 37, no. xi (2007): 2600–2619.

DePaulo, P. J., "Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Research in Marketing and Direction," Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Theories and Inquiry, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 63.

Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 271.

Pease, P. and Barbara Pease, The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 112–13.

Riggio, R. East., "Social Interaction Skills and Nonverbal Behavior," in Applications of Nonverbal Behavior Theories and Research, ed. Robert S. Feldman (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992), 15.

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Source: https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/4-4-nonverbal-communication-in-context/

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